Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Meaning of new words and phrases
Absolutist Rule: Unlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty, as vested especially in a
monarch or dictator
Utopia: An imaginary world which is not likely to exist.
Guild: Association of craftsmen or merchants who enjoyed monopoly and restricted the entry of new
businessmen.
Feudalism: It’s a system in the medieval Europe. A king would divide this kingdom and hand over
the land to Landlords. The land lords would supply soldiers when required apart from paying tax. The
Landlords would, in turn, divide the land and give away to vassals. Vassals in turn give the land to
Serfs.
Serfs: Farmers who earned their living by working in the fields of landlords. They needed to work for
the landlords and share profit from the land given to them.
Manorial Dues: Fees that peasants or serfs of farmer owe to the nobles who is their landlord.
Manorial Dues:
Nationalism: The desire of people having common identities to have their own nation. It is love and
pride for one’s own nation and readiness to sacrifice to protect the nation’s sovereign power.
Interpretation of the image of “Pact Between Nations” painted by Frédéric Sorrieu
• In 1848, Germany as Nation State did not exist.
• Frédéric Sorrieu visualised nation states in this utopian world.
• Peoples of different countries can be identified by the flag and the dress.
• They are paying homage to the Statue of Liberty.
• America and Switzerland have gone past the statue. They already had become republic.
• France has just reached the statue and Germany is just behind.
• Other European countries like Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland,
England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia followed them.
• Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene.
• They have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations
• Shattered pieces shown in the front depict the end of Absolutist rule.
Spread of Nationalism: Introduction
• Nationalism emerged in 19th C in Europe
• The result: Multinational dynastic empires vanished, and Nation States emerged
• Commonalities did not exist
• It had to be forged through struggles, by leaders and common people
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
• The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789
• The revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from Absolutist monarch to body of French
citizens
• The Revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation
and shape its destiny
• French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to develop the feeling of
collective identity
• Some were practical and some emotional
• The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789
• The revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from Absolutist monarch to body of French
citizens
• The Revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation
and shape its destiny
• French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to develop the feeling of
collective identity
• Some were practical and some emotional
The French Revolutionaries declared that it was their destiny to liberate the peoples of other
countries of Europe and help them establish Nation States.
Students, merchants and educated middle class people set up Jacobin clubs in different cities
of Europe.
This paved way for the entry of French army to Belgium, Switzerland, Holland and much of
Italy.
The French army carried the idea of Nationalism.
Napoleonic Code / Civil Code of 1804
• Napoleon brought monarchy back in France but in administration, he introduced
revolutionary changes both in France and the areas that he conquered. They are as follows.
Changes in France
• Abolished privileges based on birth
• He gave right to property
• Established equality before Law
Changes in the area conquered
• He simplified administrative system
• Abolished Feudalism
• Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues
• In towns, guild restrictions were removed
• Transportation and communication improved
• Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed newfound freedom
Mixed reaction of the people in the areas Napoleon conquered
• Napoleon’s army was considered as harbinger in the areas Napoleon conquered.
• The initial enthusiasm turned into hostility for the following reasons.
a) The administrative changes did not go hand in hand with personal and political freedom.
b) There was forced conscription (recruitment) into French army in order to conquer other parts
of Europe.
c) Severe censorship was introduced.
Long Answer Questions
1. Describe the Utopian vision of ‘Pact of Nation’ depicted by Frédéric Sorrieu.
2. The first clear expression of Nationalism was seen during the French Revolution. Explain the
statement
OR
What measures did revolutionaries take in France to imbibe the spirit of nationalism?
OR
Analyse the measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense
of collective identity amongst the French people.
3. Even though Napoleon brought back monarchy in France, he brought about revolutionary
changes in administration. Substantiate the statement.
OR
Explain the Civil Code of 1804 or Napoleonic Code
OR
Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and
efficient. Analyse the statement with arguments.
Short Answer Questions
1. Why did initial enthusiasm of the people in the areas that Napoleon conquered, turn into
hostility?
OR
How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French rule? Explain.
2. Mention the administrative changes brought about in France by Napoleon.
MCQs
1. Which of the following states had already become republic in 1848?
a) America and Switzerland b) France and Germany
c) Italy and Germany d) Austria and Netherlands.
2. The Pact Between Nations is a print prepared by
a) Frederic Sorrieu b) Gottfried Herder
c) Karol Kurpinski d) Mazzini
3. Which of the following changes did Napoleon bring about in the areas that he conquered?
a) Abolition of Feudalism b) Abolition of Manorial dues
c) Removing Guid restrictions d) All of these
4. What does the below image depict?
a) Atrocities of Prussian Army in France
b) Atrocities of the English army in France
c) Atrocities of French army in German states.
d) Atrocities of Russian army in Italy
Ans: c)
5. What does the following image depict?
a) A postman losing the letters
b) Territories that Napoleon won
c) Territories that Napoleon lost
d) Territories that Russia won
Assertion and Reason questions
1. A: Initial enthusiasm of people in the areas that Napoleon conquered turned into hostility.
R: Administrative changes did not go hand in hand with personal freedom
Ans: _____________________________________________
2. A: Initial enthusiasm of people in the areas that Napoleon conquered turned into hostility.
R: Administrative changes did not go hand in hand with personal freedom
Ans: _____________________________________________
3. A: Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would
facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
R: Peasants, artisans and businessmen enjoyed new found freedom under Napoleonic rule.
Ans: _____________________________________________
Source based questions
Read the following and answer the questions that follow
A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great
men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. To have common glories in
the past, to have a common will in the present, to have performed great deeds together, to wish to
perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people. A nation is therefore a large-
scale solidarity. Its existence is a daily plebiscite. A province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right
to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a
country against its will. The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a
guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.
1. Who is the author of the above paragraph?
2. According the author, how should a nation be formed?
3. The author also speaks about one moral reason for power sharing. Identify the sentence which
proves it.
Ans: A province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant.
Making of Nationalism in Europe
How did Nationalism develop in Europe
• Nation states did not exist in 19th C Europe
• Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose
rulers had their autonomous territories
• Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which
lived diverse peoples.
• There was no commonality to bind the people together.
• As in the Hapsburg empire, they lived in different topographies like Alpine region
• They spoke different languages.
• The Hapsburg empire, for example, had German, Italian, Magyar speaking pubic.
• People also belonged to different ethnic groups.
• The only common thing that people could identify was that they were ruled by one emperor.
• In such a diverse continent, development of nationalism was not easy.
Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
• The European society had only two classes in the society – The aristocracy and peasants.
• Landed Aristocracy was dominant in the society
• They had common way of life cutting across regional differences
• They owned estates in villages and town houses
• They spoke French for the purpose of diplomacy and High Society.
• Their families were inter-connected by ties of marriages.
• They were numerically small.
• The idea of Nationalism didn’t find place in this section of the society.
• The majority population was that of peasants.
• In the west, the bulk of the land was tilled by tenants and small owners.
• In the Middle and Eastern Europe, there were vast estates cultivated by Serfs.
• They were illiterates and ignorant.
• The idea of Nationalism couldn’t find popularity among them.
• Industrialisation began first in England.
• In France and parts of German states it happened only in 19th C.
• Industrialisation resulted in urbanisation.
• It also gave rise to a new class – “Middle Class”, consisting of industrialists, businessmen,
professionals.
• Their numbers were very small in Eastern and Central Europe.
• It is among the educated, liberal minded middle-class people that the ideas of national unity
following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
What did Liberal Nationalism stand for?
• The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free
• For the new middle class, it stood freedom for the individual and equality of all before the
law
• Politically, it emphasised a Govt. by consent (democratically elected Govt.), end of clerical
privileges, and a rule by the constitution.
• There was also demand for universal suffrage.
• Even after the French Revolution, only propertied men got the right to vote.
• Non-propertied men and women were passive citizens.
• Women and non-propertied men did not have voting rights.
• Only for a short time under the Jacobin’s rule all men got the right to vote.
• Napoleon reduced women to previous status – subjected to the authorities of their fathers and
husbands.
• In Business arena, liberalism stood for free movement of goods, people and capital.
• For example,
• Napoleon created a confederation of 39 states out of countless small principalities
• Each of these had its own currencies and weights and measures
• A merchant travelling in 1853 from Hamburg to Nuremberg had to pass through 11 custom
barriers
• He had to pay 5% custom duty that too in the local currency and local weights and measures
• Currencies, weights and measures were different.
Example of ‘Elle’
• It was a measure of Cloth
• An Elle of textile in Frankfurt = 54.7 CM
• An Elle of textile in Mainz = 55.1 CM
• An Elle of textile in Nuremberg = 65.6
CM
• Such hindrances did not promote ease of
doing business
Formation of Zollverein / First phase of Unification of Germany
• This custom union was formed at the initiative of Prussia in 1834.
• Most German States joined it.
• Tariff barriers were abolished.
• Number currencies reduced from over 30 to 2.
• Creation of railways improved mobility.
• A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the
time.
• This is considered as the First Phase of Unification of Germany.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the social structure of the 18th C Europe.
2. Why was it not easy to develop the spirit of Nationalism in Europe? Explain with examples.
3. How did Nationalism develop in Europe?
4. How was ‘Nationalism’ understood in different spheres of the society?
Short Answer Questions
1. What is Zollverein?
2. Why the formation of Zollverein is considered the First Phase of Unification of Germany?
3. Write a note on the emergence of Middle Class in Europe?
MCQs
1. Which of the following gave voting rights to all the men?
a) Napoleon b) Jacobins c) Louis Philip d) Metternich
2. Which of the following empires had Tyrol, Lombardy and Venetia, Hungary etc before the
industrial revolution?
a) The British Empire b) The Ottoman Empire
c) The Astro-Hungarian Empire d) The Hapsburg Empire
3. Who took initiative to form Zollverein?
a) Russia b) Prussia c) Austria d) France
4. Among whom the idea of nationalism gained popularity?
a) Aristocrats b) Serfs c) Peasants d) Middle class people
5. Which language was spoken by the aristocrat in 18th C Europe, for the purpose of Diplomacy
and High Society?
a) French b) English c) German d) Gaelic
Assertion and Reason Questions
1. A: Napoleon brought back democracy in France
R: He gave right to property to people, abolished privileges enjoyed by birth and brought
equality before law.
Ans: ________________________________________
2. A: Under Jacobins all men got the right to vote
R: Under Napoleon women were seen as subjected to the authorities of their fathers and
husbands.
Ans: ________________________________________
3. A: It was not easy to develop the spirit of nationalism in Europe
R: Europeans did not have commonalities that could bind them.
4. A: The world liberalism is taken from Latin language which means free
R: For the business class liberalism stood for free movement of goods, people and capital
5. A: In 18th C Europe, the aristocracy was rich and landed section of the society.
R: They were numerically large.
Source based Question
Read the following and answer the questions that follow: (Source B)
Economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked of how the nation could
develop and what economic measures could help forge this nation together.
The aim of the zollverein is to bind the Germans economically into a nation. It will strengthen the
nation materially as much by protecting its interests externally as by stimulating its internal
productivity. It ought to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and
provincial interests. The German people have realised that a free economic system is the only means
to engender national feeling.
1. Who is the author of the above paragraph?
2. What argument do you find in the paragraph to support the view that creation of zollverein is the
first phase of unification of Germany?
A new conservatism after 1815
• After the defeat of Napoleon, the European Govts. were driven by the spirit of conservatism
• Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved
• However, they didn’t want to go back to the pre-revolutionary age
• They believed, a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, abolition of
serfdom and feudalism, in fact can strengthen monarchies
Vienna Congress 1815
• It was Hosted by Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich.
• Russia, Prussia, England and Austria attended it
Objectives
• Undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
• To prevent French expansion in future
• To restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative
order in Europe.
Changes affecting France
• The Bourbon dynasty came back to power
• France lost all the territories it had annexed under Napoleon
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
Other changes and Who got What?
• Kingdom of Netherlands including Belgium was added to the North.
• Genoa was added to piedmont in the South
• Austria got Lombardy and Venetia
• Russia got part of Poland
• Prussia got Saxony
• German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched
New conservatism after 1815
• Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.
• They did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the
legitimacy of autocratic governments.
• Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and
songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with French Revolution.
Long Answer Questions
1. How did the defeat of Napoleon shape the European governments and their policies in the
post-revolutionary era?
2. What were the basic beliefs of the conservatives in Europe in the post-Napoleonic era? How
did they differ from the pre-revolutionary age?
3. Discuss the objectives and outcomes of the Vienna Congress of 1815. How did it impact
France and other European powers?
4. Describe the changes brought about by the Vienna Congress in Europe. Who got what in
terms of territorial and political gains?
5. Explain the nature of the new conservatism that emerged in Europe after 1815. How did the
conservative regimes maintain their power and control dissent?
Short Answer Questions
1. What was the spirit of conservatism that dominated Europe after the defeat of Napoleon?
2. What did conservatives believe about traditional institutions of state and society?
3. Who hosted the Vienna Congress of 1815 and which countries attended it?
4. What were the objectives of the Vienna Congress?
5. What changes were brought about by the Vienna Congress in France and other European
countries?
6. Which European powers gained territory after the Vienna Congress?
7. What was the nature of the new conservatism that emerged in Europe after 1815?
8. How did the conservative regimes maintain their power and control dissent?
MCQs
1. After the defeat of Napoleon, what was the dominant spirit that drove European governments?
a. Liberalism
b. Nationalism
c. Conservatism
d. Socialism
2. According to conservatives, what institutions of state and society should be preserved?
a. Established and traditional
b. Revolutionary and modern
c. Secular and democratic
d. Socially progressive and liberal
3. Which of the following countries did not attend the Vienna Congress of 1815?
a. Russia
b. Prussia
c. France
d. Italy
4. What was the primary objective of the Vienna Congress of 1815?
a. To restore monarchies overthrown by Napoleon
b. To promote liberalism and democracy in Europe
c. To create a pan-European federation
d. To prevent the spread of communism in Europe
5. Which European power gained Lombardy and Venetia after the Vienna Congress of 1815?
a. France
b. Austria
c. Russia
d. Prussia
6. What was the nature of the new conservatism that emerged in Europe after 1815?
a. Democratic and liberal
b. Socialist and revolutionary
c. Autocratic and intolerant
d. Nationalistic and expansionist
7. How did conservative regimes maintain their power and control dissent?
a. By promoting freedom of speech and press
b. By imposing censorship laws
c. By expanding suffrage and democracy
d. By promoting liberal and progressive policies
Assertion and Reason Questions
1. Assertion: The conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.
Reason: The conservatives believed that established institutions like monarchy, Church, social
hierarchies, and property should be preserved.
Answer: _________________________________________________________
2. Assertion: The objective of the Vienna Congress was to create a new conservative order in Europe.
Reason: The Congress aimed to undo most of the changes brought about in Europe during the
Napoleonic Wars.
Answer: _________________________________________________________
3. Assertion: The conservative regimes, imposed censorship laws to control the media.
Reason: The conservatives believed in the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French
Revolution.
Answer: _________________________________________________________
Revolutionaries
• After 1815, liberal-nationalists feared repression and went underground.
• Secret societies were created to train revolutionaries and spread ideas.
• Being revolutionary meant opposing the monarchical forms established after the Vienna Congress
and fighting for liberty and freedom.
• Creating nation-states was essential for the struggle for freedom.
• Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who founded Young Italy and Young Europe.
• Mazzini believed in creating a single unified republic in Italy as nations were the natural units of
mankind.
• Mazzini’s opposition to monarchy and vision of democratic republics scared conservatives.
• Metternich described Mazzini as the most dangerous enemy of social order.
Age of Revolutions: 1830 – 1848
• Liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolution in many regions of Europe.
• Educated middle-class elite led these revolutions, including professors, school-teachers, clerks,
and members of the commercial middle classes.
• The July Revolution of 1830 in France overthrew the Bourbon kings and installed a constitutional
monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
• The revolution in Brussels led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands.
• The Greek War of Independence in 1821 mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite
across Europe.
• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence
amongst the Greeks, which got support from other Greeks living in exile and West Europeans.
• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
Long Answer Questions
1) Who was Giuseppe Mazzini and what was his vision for Italy?
2) How did secret societies play a role in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe in the early
19th century?
3) Describe the July Revolution of 1830 in France and its impact on Europe.
4) What was the Greek War of Independence, and how did it mobilize nationalist feelings across
Europe?
5) Who supported the Greeks in their struggle for independence, and how did they mobilize
public opinion in their favour?
MCQs
1. Which of the following best describes the beliefs of the liberal-nationalists in Europe in the
early 19th century?
a. They supported the monarchical forms established after the Vienna Congress
b. They believed in the establishment of nation-states and the fight for liberty and freedom
c. They were against the unification of Italy into a single republic
d. They saw the growth of the Ottoman Empire as a positive development.
2. Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?
a. An Italian revolutionary who founded two underground societies
b. A French professor who led the July Revolution in France
c. An Ottoman Empire leader who supported the unification of Italy
d. An English poet who organized funds for the Greek war of independence.
3. What was Mazzini’s vision for Italy?
a. A patchwork of small states and kingdoms
b. A single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations
c. A constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head
d. An empire under Ottoman rule.
4. What was the July Revolution in France in 1830?
a. An uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands
b. An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe
c. The overthrow of the Bourbon kings by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional
monarchy
d. A struggle for independence among the Greeks which began in 1821.
5. What was the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832?
a. A treaty recognizing the unification of Italy into a single republic
b. A treaty recognizing the independence of Greece from the Ottoman Empire
c. A treaty recognizing the establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands
d. A treaty recognizing the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in France.
Assertion and Reason Question
1. Assertion: Giuseppe Mazzini believed that the unification of Italy was necessary for the
achievement of Italian liberty.
Reason: Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
2. Assertion: The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for
independence amongst the Greeks.
Reason: Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from
many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
3. Assertion: The fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground during the
years following 1815.
Reason: Most revolutionaries during this period saw the creation of nation-states as a
necessary part of their struggle for freedom.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
Romantic Imagination and Nationalistic feeling.
• Culture played a big part in creating the idea of the nation.
• Art, poetry, stories, and music played an important role in creating the idea of the nation.
• Romanticism was a cultural movement that focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical
feelings to create a sense of a shared collective heritage.
• Romantic artists were against glorification of science, reason and logic.
• Romantic artists and poets emphasized the importance of vernacular language and local
folklore to recover the ancient national spirit and to carry the modern nationalist message to
large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
• Johann Gottfried Herder believed that true German culture was to be discovered among the
common people. (Das volk)
• It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation
(volksgeist) was popularised
• In Poland, national feelings were kept alive through music and language even though the
country had been partitioned by the Great Powers.
• Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk
dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
• The use of Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian
dominance in Poland.
• Many members of the clergy in Poland used Polish as a weapon of national resistance after
Russian occupation, leading to punishment by the Russian authorities.
Long Answer Questions
1. How did Romanticism contribute to the formation of national sentiment, and what were some
of its key characteristics?
2. What was the significance of the idea of volksgeist, and how did it relate to the concept of
nationalism?
3. How did language play a role in the development of national sentiment in Poland, and what
were some of the consequences of this?
4. In what ways did Karol Kurpinski contribute to the development of nationalist symbols in
Poland, and how did his work reflect the broader cultural trends of his time?
Short Answer Questions
1. What was the focus of Romantic artists and poets, and how did this differ from the emphasis
on reason and science?
2. What did Johann Gottfried Herder claim about true German culture, and how did he believe it
could be discovered?
3. Why was the collection of local folklore and vernacular language important to the project of
nation-building?
4. How did the use of Polish language become a symbol of resistance against Russian
dominance in Poland?
5. Who was Karol Kurpinski, and how did his work contribute to the development of nationalist
symbols in Poland?
MCQs
1. What was the focus of Romantic artists and poets, according to the passage?
a) Glorifying reason and science
b) Expressing emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings
c) Criticizing the importance of culture in national development
d) Promoting internationalism over nationalism
2. What did Johann Gottfried Herder believe about true German culture?
a) It could only be discovered among the aristocracy.
b) It was irrelevant to the project of nation-building.
c) It was best represented by the written word.
d) It could be discovered among the common people.
3. Why was the use of vernacular language and the collection of local folklore important to the
project of nation-building, according to the passage?
a) It was irrelevant to the project of nation-building.
b) It was important for intellectual elites, but not for the broader population.
c) It was a way to recover an ancient national spirit and communicate the modern nationalist
message to illiterate audiences.
d) It was important for cultural preservation, but had no bearing on nationalism.
4. How did the use of Polish language become a symbol of resistance against Russian dominance
in Poland?
a) The use of Polish language was never a symbol of resistance.
b) The Polish language was forcefully imposed by Russian authorities.
c) The use of Polish language was restricted to the clergy, who used it as a way to resist Russian
rule.
d) The Polish language became a symbol of resistance only after the armed rebellion against
Russian rule.
Assertion and Reason Questions:
1. Assertion: Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and
science.
Reason: They focused instead on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
2. Assertion: The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was
important to the project of nation-building.
Reason: Collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to recover an
ancient national spirit.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
3. Assertion: Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
Reason: The use of vernacular language became a symbol of resistance against Russian
dominance in Poland.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
4. Assertion: Johann Gottfried Herder believed that true German culture was to be discovered
among the common people.
Reason: It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the
nation was popularised.
Answer: _______________________________________________________
5. Assertion: The Polish language was used as a weapon of national resistance against Russian
dominance.
Reason: Polish language was never forcefully imposed by Russian authorities.
Hunger, Hardship and Revolt
• In the 1830s, Europe faced economic hardship due to an increase in population and lack of
employment opportunities.
• Many people moved from rural areas to cities where they lived in overcrowded slums.
• Cheap machine-made goods from England hurt small producers in towns, especially in textile
production.
• Peasants in regions where aristocracy held power suffered from feudal dues and obligations.
• Food shortages and unemployment led to a popular revolt in Paris in 1848, resulting in the
proclamation of a Republic and the establishment of national workshops to provide
employment.
• In 1845, weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors who reduced their payments for
finished textiles and raw materials.
• The weavers demanded higher wages but were treated with scorn and threats by the
contractor.
• The weavers broke into the contractor’s house and storehouse, and some supplies were
destroyed.
• The contractor fled and returned with the army, resulting in the shooting of eleven weavers.
Long Answer Questions
1. What were the main economic challenges faced by Europe in the 1830s, and how did they
contribute to the popular unrest of the time?
OR
What were the main causes of economic hardship in Europe during the 1830s?
2. What was the cause of the weavers’ revolt in Silesia in 1845, and how did the contractors
react to the demands of the weavers?
Short Answer Questions
1. How did overcrowded slums contribute to popular unrest in Europe during the 1830s?
2. How did feudal obligations and dues affect peasants in Europe during the 1830s?
3. Why did the weavers in Silesia revolt in 1845?
4. How did the contractors react to the demands of the weavers during the revolt in Silesia?
MCQs
1. What was the main cause of the popular revolt in Paris in 1848?
A) Food shortages and unemployment
B) Political corruption
C) Religious conflicts
D) Military invasion
2. How did the angry weavers in Silesia react to the reduction in payments by their contractors?
A) They went on strike
B) They organized a protest march
C) They broke into the contractor’s house and storehouse
D) They appealed to the government for help
3. What was the response of the authorities to the weavers’ revolt in Silesia?
A) They granted the weavers their demands
B) They ignored the revolt and did not intervene
C) They used force to suppress the revolt
D) They negotiated a compromise between the weavers and the contractors
4. What were the consequences of the popular revolt in Paris in 1848?
A) Louis Philippe was forced to flee and a Republic was proclaimed
B) The monarchy was strengthened and political reforms were implemented
C) The National Assembly was dissolved and replaced by a military dictatorship
D) The economy improved and unemployment decreased
5. How did overcrowded slums contribute to popular unrest in Europe during the 1830s?
A) They provided a sense of community and solidarity
B) They created an environment of social and economic inequality
C) They were a source of cultural diversity and creativity
D) They had no impact on popular unrest in Europe
6. What were the consequences of the economic challenges faced by Europe in the 1830s?
A) The development of political and social movements that sought to address these challenges
B) The rapid growth of the economy and increased prosperity for all
C) The strengthening of traditional social and economic structures
D) The expansion of colonialism and imperialism
1848- Revolution of the Liberal Nationals : Unification of Germany Phase II
• In 1848, there were revolutions led by the educated middle class in Europe.
• France had a revolution which resulted in a republic based on universal male suffrage.
• People in other parts of Europe demanded a nation-state with a constitution, freedom of the press,
and freedom of association.
• German political associations comprised of middle-class professionals, businessmen, and
prosperous artisans met in Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
• On May 18, 1848, 831 elected representatives drafted a constitution for a German nation to be
headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
• When the deputies offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, on these terms, he
rejected it and opposed the elected assembly with other monarchs.
• The opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger while the social basis of
parliament eroded.
• The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who lost the support of workers and artisans.
• In the end, troops were called in, and the assembly was forced to disband..
Participation of Women
• Women actively participated in the liberal movement and formed their own political associations,
founded newspapers, and participated in political meetings and demonstrations.
• Despite their active participation, women were denied suffrage rights during the election of the
Assembly.
• Women were only allowed to observe and stand in the visitors’ gallery during the Frankfurt
parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
• The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal
movement.
Consequences of the Revolutions
• In 1848 there was an uprising against monarchs who ruled central/eastern Europe but failed due to
suppression by these monarchs
• After 1848 monarchs realised change is required, hence started making gradual changes such as:
a) Abolishing serfdom/bonded labour
b) Granting more power to people of different ethnicities who live within same country e.g.,
Hungary
• This slow pace of change continued till early 20th century & even then some parts remained
under authoritarian rule (Russia).
Long Answer Questions
1. What were the demands of the liberal middle classes during the revolution of 1848? How did
they use popular unrest to push their demands?
2. Describe the events leading up to the convening of the Frankfurt parliament in 1848. What
were the goals of the parliament and why did it ultimately fail?
3. How did women participate in the liberal movement during the revolution of 1848? Why were
they denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly?
Short Answer Questions
1. Who led the revolution of the educated middle classes in 1848?
2. What event in France led to the abdication of the monarch and proclamation of a republic
based on universal male suffrage?
3. What demands did the liberal middle classes make in Europe for the creation of a nation-
state?
4. Where did a large number of political associations of middle-class professionals, businessmen
and prosperous artisans come together in Germany?
5. What type of government did the Frankfurt parliament draft a constitution for in 1848?
6. Why did Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, reject the crown offered to him on the terms
set by the deputies?
7. What was the stance of the middle classes towards the demands of workers and artisans, and
what was the consequence of this?
8. What was the position of women in the liberal movement in 1848, and were they granted
suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly?
9. What did the conservative forces try to do in response to the liberal movements in 1848?
10. How did the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe respond to the cycles of
revolution and repression in the years after 1848?
The Unification of Germany and Italy
Can Army be the architect of Nation?
Unification of Germany Phase III
• After 1848, nationalism in Europe shifted away from democracy and revolution.
• Nationalist feelings were used by conservatives to promote state power and political domination
over Europe.
• In 1848, middle-class Germans tried to unite different regions of the German confederation into a
nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
• This liberal initiative was repressed by the monarchy, military, and large landowners of Prussia.
• Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification, led by chief minister Otto
von Bismarck.
• Three wars with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in Prussian victory and completed the
process of unification.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony
held at Versailles.
• The nation-building process in Germany demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power.
• The new state emphasized modernizing currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems in
Germany.
• Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the process of Unification of Germany
2. How did Prussia’s dominance in the process of nation-building in Germany impact the
country’s political and economic systems?
Short Answer Questions
• When did nationalism in Europe begin to move away from its association with democracy
and revolution?
• Who led the movement for national unification in Germany after the failure of the liberal
initiative in 1848?
• What were some of the political and economic systems that were modernized in Germany
under Prussian dominance?
• Who headed the new German Empire after the completion of the nation-building process?
MCQs
1. Who mobilized nationalist sentiments in Europe for promoting state power and achieving
political domination over Europe after 1848?
A) Liberals B) Conservatives
C) Middle-class D) Revolutionaries
2. Who repressed the liberal initiative to nation-building in Germany in 1848?
A) The Prussian army and bureaucracy
B) The elected parliament
C) The middle-class Germans
D) The monarchy, military, and large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia
5. Which wars ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification in Germany?
A) Wars with France and Russia B) Wars with Austria, Denmark, and France
C) Wars with Italy and Spain D) Wars with the Ottoman Empire and Greece
Assertion and Reason questions
1. Assertion: Nationalism in Europe after 1848 moved away from its association with
democracy and revolution.
Reason: Nationalist sentiments were often mobilized by liberals for promoting state power
and achieving political domination over Europe.
Answer: ________________________________________________
2. Assertion: The middle-class Revolution of 1848 in German states was supported by the
military and the Junkers of Prussia.
Reason: Military played a major role in the unification of Germany.
Answer: ________________________________________________
Unification of Italy
• Italy was divided into seven states, each ruled by different dynasties including Austrian
Habsburgs, the Pope and the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society called Young Italy to unite Italy into a republic, but
his attempts failed.
• Sardinia-Piedmont, led by King Victor Emmanuel II, aimed to unify Italy through war and
economic development.
• The elite of Italy supported unification as they thought that it would help to expand their
business.
• Chief Minister Cavour entered into a diplomatic alliance with France and defeated Austria in
1859.
• Garibaldi marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, winning the support of
local peasants to drive out Spanish rulers and support the unification.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II became the king of united Italy, but many Italians remained
unaware of the liberal-nationalist ideology.
• Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy, where volunteers joined and were
known as Red Shirts.
• In 1867, Garibaldi led an army to Rome to fight the Papal States, but the Red Shirts were
defeated by French and Papal troops.
• In 1870, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its troops from Rome, allowing the
Papal States to finally join Italy.
Long Answer Questions
1. Describe the process of Unification of Italy.
2. Who was Giuseppe Mazzini and what was his role in the Italian unification movement?
3. Who was Chief Minister Cavour and how did he contribute to the unification of Italy?
4. Who was Giuseppe Garibaldi and what was his significance in the Italian unification
movement?
MCQ
1. Who sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic during
the 1830s?
a) King Victor Emmanuel II b) Giuseppe Garibaldi
c) Chief Minister Cavour d) Giuseppe Mazzini
2. How many states was Italy divided into during the middle of the nineteenth century?
a) Three states b) Four states
c) Six states d) Seven states
3. Who was the ruler of Sardinia-Piedmont who led the movement to unify the regions of
Italy through war?
a) Giuseppe Garibaldi b) Chief Minister Cavour
c) King Victor Emmanuel II d) Giuseppe Mazzini
4. What was the secret society formed by Giuseppe Mazzini called?
a) Young Italy b) Red Shirts c) Expedition of the Thousand d) La Talia
Assertion and Reason questions
1. Assertion: Giuseppe Mazzini sought to create a coherent programme for a unitary Italian
Republic during the 1830s.
Reason: Mazzini believed that a unified Italy would bring economic development and political
dominance to the region.
Ans:________________________________________________________________
2. Assertion: Giuseppe Garibaldi is the most celebrated of Italian freedom fighters.
Reason: Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy in 1860 and
successfully defeated the French and Papal troops in the Papal States in 1870.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
3. Assertion: The elite class of Italy support unification
Reason: A unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political
dominance.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
4. Assertion: It was not easy for Garibaldi to defeat the Papal Kingdom
Reason: A contingent of Russian army was there in Papal state to protect it
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
The strange Case of Britain
• The formation of the nation-state in Great Britain was a gradual process that extended English
influence over the other nations in the British Isles.
• The English parliament played a significant role in forging a nation-state with England at its
centre.
• The Act of Union in 1707 led to the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, with the
British parliament dominated by English members.
• Scotland’s culture and political institutions were suppressed, and Catholic clans in the Scottish
Highlands faced terrible repression.
• Similarly, Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants, and the English helped the
Protestants establish dominance.
• Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801, and a new ‘British nation’ was
forged with a dominant English culture.
• Symbols of the new Britain, such as the British flag, national anthem, and English language, were
actively promoted. The older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
Long Answer Questions
1. How was the formation of the nation-state in Great Britain different from other countries, and
what factors contributed to its gradual process?
2. What measures were taken to suppress Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions, and
what impact did this have on the country?
3. How did the English help the Protestants of Ireland establish dominance over the largely Catholic
country, and what were the consequences of this?
4. What was the process of Ireland’s incorporation into the United Kingdom, and how did this
contribute to the formation of a ‘British nation’ with a dominant English culture?
MCQ
1. When was the English parliament able to seize power from the monarchy?
a) 1688 b) 1707 c) 1798 d) 1801
2. How was a British identity forged in Scotland?
a) By promoting Scottish culture and political institutions
b) By systematically suppressing Scottish culture and political institutions
c) By offering Scotland independence
d) By incorporating Scotland into the United Kingdom as an equal partner
3. How did the English help the Protestants of Ireland establish dominance over the largely
Catholic country?
a) By promoting Catholicism b) By supporting Catholic revolts
c) By suppressing Catholic revolts d) By offering equal rights to Catholics and Protestants
4. When was Ireland forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom?
a) 1688 b) 1707 c) 1798 d) 1801
5. What symbols of the new Britain were actively promoted?
a) Scottish flag, national anthem, and language
b) Welsh flag, national anthem, and language
c) British flag, national anthem, and English language
d) Irish flag, national anthem, and language
6. What happened to the older nations in the British Isles after the formation of the ‘British
nation’?
a) They were incorporated into the new nation as equal partners.
b) They were able to maintain their cultural and political institutions.
c) They were systematically suppressed and survived only as subordinate partners in the union.
d) They seceded from the union and became independent countries.
Assertion and Reason Questions
1. Assertion: The Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain.
Reason: The English parliament was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the
British Isles.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
2. Assertion: The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible
repression.
Reason: The Scottish Highlanders refused to accept English influence.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
3. Assertion: The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and
political institutions were systematically suppressed.
Reason: The English parliament was dominated by its Scottish members.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
4. Assertion: The British parliament was dominated by its English members after the Act of
Union in 1707.
Reason: Scotland was able to impose its influence on England.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
5. Assertion: The new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English
culture.
Reason: The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag, the national anthem, and the
English language – were actively promoted.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
6. Assertion: The older nations of the British Isles were able to maintain their cultural and
political institutions after the formation of the ‘British nation.’
Reason: The new ‘British nation’ was a partnership of equals between England, Scotland,
Wales, and Ireland.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
Visualising Nations
• Artists personified nations as female figures in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The female figure did not represent any particular woman but sought to give a concrete form
to the abstract idea of the nation.
• France used the female allegory Marianne to represent the nation with attributes of Liberty
and the Republic such as the red cap, tricolour, and cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares and her image was marked on coins and
stamps.
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation and wore a crown of oak leaves to
represent heroism.
Long Answer Question
1. How did artists in the 18th and 19th centuries give a concrete form to the abstract idea of a
nation? Discuss with examples of Marianne in France and Germania in Germany.
MCQs
1. How did artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries represent a nation?
a) Through portraits of rulers
b) Through statues of prominent citizens
c) By personifying the nation as a female figure
d) By creating abstract paintings representing the nation
2. What do the female figures used to represent a nation stand for?
a) Specific women in real life b) The ruler of the nation
c) The abstract idea of the nation given a concrete form d) The ideals of the nation
3. Which female figure was invented to represent the French nation in the nineteenth
century?
a) Britannia b) Germania c) Marianne d) Lady Liberty
4. What were the characteristics of Marianne drawn from?
a) Those of the German nation b) Those of the British Empire
c) Those of Liberty and the Republic d) Those of the French monarchy
5. What did the crown of oak leaves worn by Germania symbolize?
a) Willingness to make peace b) Heroism
c) Readiness to fight d) Beginning of a new era
6. What does the sword carried by Germania represent?
a) Heroism b) Willingness to make peace
c) Readiness to fight d) Beginning of a new era
7. What does the olive branch around the sword carried by Germania symbolize?
a) Willingness to make peace b) Heroism
c) Readiness to fight d) Beginning of a new era
8. What do the rays of the rising sun behind Germania symbolize?
a) Heroism b) Willingness to make peace
c) Readiness to fight d) Beginning of a new era
9. What is the significance of the black, red, and gold tricolour?
a) It was the flag of the German empire b) It was the flag of the French Revolution
c) It was the flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848 d) It was the flag of the British Empire
10. What is the significance of the breastplate with an eagle worn by Germania?
a) It represents the German empire b) It represents strength
c) It represents heroism d) It represents willingness to make peace
Assertion and Reason Questions
1. Assertion: During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, artists found a way to give a face
to a nation by personifying it as a female figure.
Reason: Female allegories were invented by artists to represent the nation and these female
figures became an allegory of the nation
Answer: ______________________________________________________
2. Assertion: Marianne was the female allegory used to represent the German nation.
Reason: Marianne is a popular Christian name in France that underlined the idea of a people’s
nation.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
3. Assertion: The broken chain is one of the attributes of Liberty as represented by female
allegories during the French Revolution.
Reason: The broken chain represents the idea of being freed from oppression and tyranny,
which is one of the key principles of Liberty.
Answer: ______________________________________________________
4. Assertion: Germania is represented wearing a crown of oak leaves in visual representations.
Reason: The German oak is a symbol of heroism and was used by artists to represent the
heroism of the German nation.
Nationalism and Imperialism
• In the late 1800s, nationalism became more intolerant and led to conflicts and wars.
• The Balkan region, including countries like Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and others, was a
source of tension due to nationalism and the Ottoman Empire’s collapse. The Ottoman Empire
had tried to hold the region together.
• European countries competed for power and resources, making matters worse.
• The Balkan states were part of the Turkish empire.
• On the one hand, the Turkish empire was becoming weak and on the other hand, the idea of
nationalism spread to these Balkan states.
• The Balkan states used their history and culture to claim independence and assert their
national identity.
• Turkey tried to hold these states together with modernisation and reformation but in vain.
• Conflict in the Balkan region, along with alliances and rivalries among European countries,
ultimately led to the outbreak of the First World War.
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist
was the spark that ignited the conflict.
• Offensive and defensive treaties were signed between and among European countries.
• This complex network of alliances and rivalries among European powers led to a chain
reaction of events that escalated into a global conflict.
• Anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, struggling to form
independent nation-states, and inspired by a sense of collective national unity forged in
confrontation with imperialism.
• European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed
their own specific variety of nationalism, but the idea that societies should be organized into
‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.
Long Answer Questions
1. How did the spread of romantic nationalism in the Balkans contribute to the tension and conflicts
in the region in the late 19th century?
2. What factors led to the intense rivalry among European powers over the Balkan region in the late
1800s?
3. How did nationalism aligned with imperialism contribute to the outbreak of the First World War?
MCQs
1. Which region was the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871?
A) France B) Balkans C) Germany D) United Kingdom
2. What contributed to the explosive nature of the Balkan region in the late 19th century?
A) The spread of communist ideology
B) The spread of romantic nationalism
C) The disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
D) The rise of democratic governments
3. What led to increasing intolerance and readiness for war among nationalist groups in the
late 19th century?
A) A desire for global peace and cooperation B) The spread of liberal democracy
C) The limited ends of nationalism D) The influence of religious groups
4. What was the primary factor behind the intense rivalry among European powers over the
Balkan region?
A) Access to trade routes B) The desire for colonies
C) Naval and military might D) All of the above
5. What role did nationalism aligned with imperialism play in the outbreak of the First
World War?
A) It contributed to a sense of global cooperation and unity
B) It was a primary factor behind the conflict
C) It had no role in the outbreak of the war
D) It led to the formation of independent nation-states
6. How did anti-imperial movements contribute to the rise of nationalism and the struggle
for independent nation-states?
A) They had no impact on the rise of nationalism
B) They inspired a sense of collective national unity in confrontations with imperialism
C) They contributed to global peace and cooperation
D) They sought to establish a global empire.
7. What is the idea that societies should be organized into nation-states known as?
A) Internationalism B) Globalism C) Imperialism D) Nationalism
8. What was the result of the conflicts and tensions in the Balkan region in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries?
A) The establishment of a global empire B) The disintegration of nationalist movements
C) The outbreak of the First World War D) The rise of liberal democracy
Assertion and Reason questions
1. Assertion: The Balkans was the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after
1871.
Reason: The Balkans became the scene of big power rivalry, with intense rivalry among the
European powers over trade, colonies, naval and military might.
Answer: ___________________________________________________
2. Assertion: The idea that societies should be organized into ‘nation-states’ came to be
accepted as natural and universal.
Reason: European ideas of nationalism were replicated in other parts of the world.
Answer: ___________________________________________________
