Meaning of new words and phrases

Absolutist Rule: Unlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty, as vested especially in a monarch or dictator

Utopia: An imaginary world which is not likely to exist.

Guild: Association of craftsmen or merchants who enjoyed monopoly and restricted the entry of new businessmen.

Feudalism: It’s a system in the medieval Europe. A king would divide this kingdom and hand over the land to Landlords. The land lords would supply soldiers when required apart from paying tax. The Landlords would, in turn, divide the land and give away to vassals. Vassals in turn give the land to Serfs.

Serfs: Farmers who earned their living by working in the fields of landlords. They needed to work for the landlords and share profit from the land given to them.

Manorial Dues: Fees that peasants or serfs of farmer owe to the nobles who is their landlord.

Manorial Dues:

Nationalism: The desire of people having common identities to have their own nation. It is love and pride for one’s own nation and readiness to sacrifice to protect the nation’s sovereign power.

Interpretation of the image of “Pact Between Nations” painted by Frédéric Sorrieu

• In 1848, Germany as Nation State did not exist.
• Frédéric Sorrieu visualised nation states in this utopian world.
• Peoples of different countries can be identified by the flag and the dress.
• They are paying homage to the Statue of Liberty.
• America and Switzerland have gone past the statue. They already had become republic.
• France has just reached the statue and Germany is just behind.
• Other European countries like Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia followed them.
• Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene.
• They have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations
• Shattered pieces shown in the front depict the end of Absolutist rule.

Spread of Nationalism: Introduction

• Nationalism emerged in 19th C in Europe
• The result: Multinational dynastic empires vanished, and Nation States emerged
• Commonalities did not exist
• It had to be forged through struggles, by leaders and common people

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789
• The revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from Absolutist monarch to body of French citizens
• The Revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny
• French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to develop the feeling of collective identity
• Some were practical and some emotional
• The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789
• The revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from Absolutist monarch to body of French citizens
• The Revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny
• French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to develop the feeling of collective identity
• Some were practical and some emotional

The French Revolutionaries declared that it was their destiny to liberate the peoples of other countries of Europe and help them establish Nation States.

Students, merchants and educated middle class people set up Jacobin clubs in different cities of Europe.

This paved way for the entry of French army to Belgium, Switzerland, Holland and much of Italy.

The French army carried the idea of Nationalism.

Napoleonic Code / Civil Code of 1804

• Napoleon brought monarchy back in France but in administration, he introduced revolutionary changes both in France and the areas that he conquered. They are as follows.

Changes in France

• Abolished privileges based on birth
• He gave right to property
• Established equality before Law

Changes in the area conquered

• He simplified administrative system
• Abolished Feudalism
• Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues
• In towns, guild restrictions were removed
• Transportation and communication improved
• Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed newfound freedom

Mixed reaction of the people in the areas Napoleon conquered

• Napoleon’s army was considered as harbinger in the areas Napoleon conquered.
• The initial enthusiasm turned into hostility for the following reasons.

1. The administrative changes did not go hand in hand with personal and political freedom.
2. There was forced conscription (recruitment) into French army in order to conquer other parts of Europe.
3. Severe censorship was introduced.

Long Answer Questions

1. Describe the Utopian vision of ‘Pact of Nation’ depicted by Frédéric Sorrieu.
2. The first clear expression of Nationalism was seen during the French Revolution. Explain the statement

OR

What measures did revolutionaries take in France to imbibe the spirit of nationalism?

OR

Analyse the measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.

3. Even though Napoleon brought back monarchy in France, he brought about revolutionary changes in administration. Substantiate the statement.

OR

Explain the Civil Code of 1804 or Napoleonic Code

OR

Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. Analyse the statement with arguments.

Short Answer Questions

1. Why did initial enthusiasm of the people in the areas that Napoleon conquered, turn into hostility?

OR

How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French rule? Explain.

 OR

Mention the administrative changes brought about in France by Napoleon

Source based questions

Read the following and answer the questions that follow

A nation is the culmination of  a  long  past  of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have performed great deeds together, to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people. A nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity.  Its existence is a daily plebiscite.  A province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will. The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.

1. Who is the author of the above paragraph?
2. According the author, how should a nation be formed?
3. The author also speaks about one moral reason for power sharing. Identify the sentence which proves it.

Ans: A province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant.

Romantic Imagination and Nationalistic feeling.

• Culture played a big part in creating the idea of the nation.
• Art, poetry, stories, and music played an important role in creating the idea of the nation.
• Romanticism was a cultural movement that focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings to create a sense of a shared collective heritage.
• Romantic artists were against glorification of science, reason and logic.
• Romantic artists and poets emphasized the importance of vernacular language and local folklore to recover the ancient national spirit and to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
• Johann Gottfried Herder believed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. (Das volk)
• It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised
• In Poland, national feelings were kept alive through music and language even though the country had been partitioned by the Great Powers.
• Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
• The use of Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance in Poland.
• Many members of the clergy in Poland used Polish as a weapon of national resistance after Russian occupation, leading to punishment by the Russian authorities.

Long Answer Questions

1. How did Romanticism contribute to the formation of national sentiment, and what were some of its key characteristics?
2. What was the significance of the idea of volksgeist, and how did it relate to the concept of nationalism?
3. How did language play a role in the development of national sentiment in Poland, and what were some of the consequences of this?
4. In what ways did Karol Kurpinski contribute to the development of nationalist symbols in Poland, and how did his work reflect the broader cultural trends of his time?

Short Answer Questions

1. What was the focus of Romantic artists and poets, and how did this differ from the emphasis on reason and science?
2. What did Johann Gottfried Herder claim about true German culture, and how did he believe it could be discovered?
3. Why was the collection of local folklore and vernacular language important to the project of nation-building?
4. How did the use of Polish language become a symbol of resistance against Russian dominance in Poland?
5. Who was Karol Kurpinski, and how did his work contribute to the development of nationalist symbols in Poland?

Hunger, Hardship and Revolt

• In the 1830s, Europe faced economic hardship due to an increase in population and lack of employment opportunities.
• Many people moved from rural areas to cities where they lived in overcrowded slums.
• Cheap machine-made goods from England hurt small producers in towns, especially in textile production.
• Peasants in regions where aristocracy held power suffered from feudal dues and obligations.
• Food shortages and unemployment led to a popular revolt in Paris in 1848, resulting in the proclamation of a Republic and the establishment of national workshops to provide employment.
• In 1845, weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors who reduced their payments for finished textiles and raw materials.
• The weavers demanded higher wages but were treated with scorn and threats by the contractor.
• The weavers broke into the contractor’s house and storehouse, and some supplies were destroyed.
• The contractor fled and returned with the army, resulting in the shooting of eleven weavers.

Long Answer Questions

1. What were the main economic challenges faced by Europe in the 1830s, and how did they contribute to the popular unrest of the time?

OR

What were the main causes of economic hardship in Europe during the 1830s?

2. What was the cause of the weavers’ revolt in Silesia in 1845, and how did the contractors react to the demands of the weavers?

Short Answer Questions

1. How did overcrowded slums contribute to popular unrest in Europe during the 1830s?
2. How did feudal obligations and dues affect peasants in Europe during the 1830s?
3. Why did the weavers in Silesia revolt in 1845?
4. How did the contractors react to the demands of the weavers during the revolt in Silesia?

1848- Revolution of the Liberal Nationals : Unification of Germany Phase II

• In 1848, there were revolutions led by the educated middle class in Europe.
• France had a revolution which resulted in a republic based on universal male suffrage.
• People in other parts of Europe demanded a nation-state with a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.
• German political associations comprised of middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans met in Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
• On May 18, 1848, 831 elected representatives drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
• When the deputies offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, on these terms, he rejected it and opposed the elected assembly with other monarchs.
• The opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger while the social basis of parliament eroded.
• The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who lost the support of workers and artisans.
• In the end, troops were called in, and the assembly was forced to disband..

Participation of Women

• Women actively participated in the liberal movement and formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and participated in political meetings and demonstrations.
• Despite their active participation, women were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.
• Women were only allowed to observe and stand in the visitors’ gallery during the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
• The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement.

Consequences of the Revolutions

• In 1848 there was an uprising against monarchs who ruled central/eastern Europe but failed due to suppression by these monarchs
• After 1848 monarchs realised change is required, hence started making gradual changes such as:

1. Abolishing serfdom/bonded labour
2. Granting more power to people of different ethnicities who live within same country e.g., Hungary

• This slow pace of change continued till early 20th century & even then some parts remained under authoritarian rule (Russia).

Long Answer Questions

1. What were the demands of the liberal middle classes during the revolution of 1848? How did they use popular unrest to push their demands?
2. Describe the events leading up to the convening of the Frankfurt parliament in 1848. What were the goals of the parliament and why did it ultimately fail?
3. How did women participate in the liberal movement during the revolution of 1848? Why were they denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly?

Short Answer Questions

1. Who led the revolution of the educated middle classes in 1848?
2. What event in France led to the abdication of the monarch and proclamation of a republic based on universal male suffrage?
3. What demands did the liberal middle classes make in Europe for the creation of a nation-state?
4. Where did a large number of political associations of middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans come together in Germany?
5. What type of government did the Frankfurt parliament draft a constitution for in 1848?
6. Why did Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, reject the crown offered to him on the terms set by the deputies?
7. What was the stance of the middle classes towards the demands of workers and artisans, and what was the consequence of this?
8. What was the position of women in the liberal movement in 1848, and were they granted suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly?
9. What did the conservative forces try to do in response to the liberal movements in 1848?
10. How did the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe respond to the cycles of revolution and repression in the years after 1848?

The Unification of Germany and Italy

Can Army be the architect of Nation?

Unification of Germany Phase III

• After 1848, nationalism in Europe shifted away from democracy and revolution.
• Nationalist feelings were used by conservatives to promote state power and political domination over Europe.
• In 1848, middle-class Germans tried to unite different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
• This liberal initiative was repressed by the monarchy, military, and large landowners of Prussia.
• Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification, led by chief minister Otto von Bismarck.
• Three wars with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
• The nation-building process in Germany demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power.
• The new state emphasized modernizing currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems in Germany.
• Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the process of Unification of Germany
2. How did Prussia’s dominance in the process of nation-building in Germany impact the country’s political and economic systems?

Short Answer Questions

• When did nationalism in Europe begin to move away from its association with democracy and revolution?
• Who led the movement for national unification in Germany after the failure of the liberal initiative in 1848?
• What were some of the political and economic systems that were modernized in Germany under Prussian dominance?
• Who headed the new German Empire after the completion of the nation-building process?

The strange Case of Britain

• The formation of the nation-state in Great Britain was a gradual process that extended English influence over the other nations in the British Isles.
• The English parliament played a significant role in forging a nation-state with England at its centre.
• The Act of Union in 1707 led to the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, with the British parliament dominated by English members.
• Scotland’s culture and political institutions were suppressed, and Catholic clans in the Scottish Highlands faced terrible repression.
• Similarly, Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants, and the English helped the Protestants establish dominance.
• Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801, and a new ‘British nation’ was forged with a dominant English culture.
• Symbols of the new Britain, such as the British flag, national anthem, and English language, were actively promoted. The older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Long Answer Questions

1. How was the formation of the nation-state in Great Britain different from other countries, and what factors contributed to its gradual process?
2. What measures were taken to suppress Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions, and what impact did this have on the country?
3. How did the English help the Protestants of Ireland establish dominance over the largely Catholic country, and what were the consequences of this?
4. What was the process of Ireland’s incorporation into the United Kingdom, and how did this contribute to the formation of a ‘British nation’ with a dominant English culture?

Visualising Nations

• Artists personified nations as female figures in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The female figure did not represent any particular woman but sought to give a concrete form to the abstract idea of the nation.
• France used the female allegory Marianne to represent the nation with attributes of Liberty and the Republic such as the red cap, tricolour, and cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares and her image was marked on coins and stamps.
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation and wore a crown of oak leaves to represent heroism.

Long Answer Question

1. How did artists in the 18th and 19th centuries give a concrete form to the abstract idea of a nation? Discuss with examples of Marianne in France and Germania in Germany.